Origin of Birds, Evolution, and Darwin's Finches
The origin of birds is one of the greatest mysteries of the animal kingdom. Today, there are more than 10,000 species of birds with feathered wings, which share some similarities with the dinosaurs that once roamed this earth. Thomas Huxley proposed that birds are related to dinosaurs when he made the connection between the fossil Archaeopteryx and a small dinosaur called Compsognathus. Archaeopteryx is a 150 million year old fossil with preserved feathers along it's wings, which contained 3 digits. Compsognathus was a turkey sized dinosaur with 3 digits, hollow bones, and two legs, just as present day birds have. Later, Ostrum discovered the remains of a small, agile dinosaur called Deinonychus which also had 3 digits and hollow bones. Ostrum concluded that birds had descended from theropods, a lineage of dinosaurs that were agile predators and had a wishbone and three forwards facing digits, making their skeletal structure very similar to modern birds. Eventually, feathers that were once used to provide insulation and communication were modified for flight. Cooption, or the modification of an existing structure for new use, is a common way for new abilities, such as flying, to evolve( HHMI Biointeractive, 2015).
Darwin came up with his theory of evolution by studying the animals of the Galapagos. The archipelago was the perfect place to show the process of adaptation and natural selection. Darwin visited four islands of the Galapagos and noticed that some species were endemic to certain islands, something he called "aboriginal creations. He collected samples of all different species, including the 13 species of finches found on the islands. Darwin concluded that living things are shaped by the world around them through natural selection, which lead to his theory of evolution ( Evolution in the Galapagos, 2011).
The island Daphne Major serves as a mini-laboratory today to study natural selection in real time. Every summer since 1973, Peter and Rosemary Grant have been studying and tracking over 1,000 medium ground finches. In 1977, a terrible drought wiped out over 80% of the population. The birds with larger beaks, who were able to feed on the more abundant larger seeds, survived at higher rates than the birds with smaller beaks who could only eat the scarce small seeds. The next year, the offspring of survivors had on average a 4% greater beak size. In 1983, El nino brought so much rain that larger seeds became scarce and the small seeds on vines were abundant. More of the small beaked finches survived, resulting in offspring that had smaller beaks (HHMI Bioactive, 2014).
Over millions of years, changes like these took place to create different species of finches with different beak sizes. A species, defined as populations whose members don't interbreed, become created when a population becomes split geographically and change so much that when they are introduced again they will no longer mate. Most likely, two million years ago a single finch population arrived on one of the islands. When the descendants of this species reached another island with new conditions, they adapted and could no longer mate with the original species that arrived. DNA evidence shows that the 13 finches of the Galapagos are more closely related to each other than any other species from the mainland ( HHMI Bioactive, 2014).
Tourism, Population Growth, and the Economy
Prior to organized tourism, the Galapagos was a little outpost not many knew about. Up until the 1950's the Galapagos had been a drain on the national economy, but with the growth of tourism and the designation as a National Park tourism dollars poured in. During the 1970's tourist vessels jumped from 4 or 5 to 40. The annual number of tourists went from 18,000 in 1985, to 41,000 is 1990, to 72,000 in 2000. With an increase in tourists, came an increase in population growth on the island. The large inflow of tourism dollars attracted Ecuadorian immigrants to come and economically benefit from the tourism industry. Between 1974 and 1998 the population in the Galapagos more than tripled, from 4,078 to 15,311. Studies on the town Puerto Ayora on Santa Cruz over a
24 year period show that for each each 1% growth in the number of visitors, the town's population grew .97% (Euler, 2007).
The most important sectors in Galapagos employment include transport, storage, and communication (15.3%,, vehicle servicing (11.2%), agriculture (10.3%), public administration (10.3%), and construction (7.6%). Although tourism is not listed, is is indirectly related to all of these sectors and is estimated to be responsible for 78% of all employment in the Galapagos. Tourism is estimated to contribute $62.9 million to the insular economy. In addition, it is argued that Galapagos tourism benefits mainland Ecuador. International tourists visiting the Galapagos spent nearly as much or more time in Ecuador than on the islands, although much less money. The expenditures on the mainland would most likely not have occurred if the tourists did not also visit the Galapagos (Epler, 2007).
Population and tourism growth does not come without challenges. Population growth has strained local municipalities who struggle to provide adequate services and infrastructure , increased pressure to exploit resources, accelerated the rate of introduction of invasive species, and lead to pollution of drinking water. Issues on waste management and sewage problems are other concernsThese issues often lead to moments of civil unrest and crime, such as when 80 tortoises were slaughtered in 1944 and the Darwin Station was seized in 1955 by sea cucumber fisherman. Negative impacts from tourism not only include more development, but erosion, damage to geologic features, and the possibility of trash and plastic from tour ships entering the water and harming sea life (Sitnik, n.d.).
The Galapagos National Park Service and Charles Darwin Research Station implemented various systems to regulate tourism and finance conservation and development which includes visitor entrance fees, boat licenses (cupos), designating zones based on use and their carrying capacity, and regulating vessel itineraries. The tourism industry in the Galapagos is dependent on the reputation as one of the world's most pristine and best-managed protected areas. Better planning that includes environmental protection as well as socioeconomic development is needed to ensure that the beauty and integrity of the Galapagos remain intact (Euler, 2007).
Prior to organized tourism, the Galapagos was a little outpost not many knew about. Up until the 1950's the Galapagos had been a drain on the national economy, but with the growth of tourism and the designation as a National Park tourism dollars poured in. During the 1970's tourist vessels jumped from 4 or 5 to 40. The annual number of tourists went from 18,000 in 1985, to 41,000 is 1990, to 72,000 in 2000. With an increase in tourists, came an increase in population growth on the island. The large inflow of tourism dollars attracted Ecuadorian immigrants to come and economically benefit from the tourism industry. Between 1974 and 1998 the population in the Galapagos more than tripled, from 4,078 to 15,311. Studies on the town Puerto Ayora on Santa Cruz over a
24 year period show that for each each 1% growth in the number of visitors, the town's population grew .97% (Euler, 2007).
The most important sectors in Galapagos employment include transport, storage, and communication (15.3%,, vehicle servicing (11.2%), agriculture (10.3%), public administration (10.3%), and construction (7.6%). Although tourism is not listed, is is indirectly related to all of these sectors and is estimated to be responsible for 78% of all employment in the Galapagos. Tourism is estimated to contribute $62.9 million to the insular economy. In addition, it is argued that Galapagos tourism benefits mainland Ecuador. International tourists visiting the Galapagos spent nearly as much or more time in Ecuador than on the islands, although much less money. The expenditures on the mainland would most likely not have occurred if the tourists did not also visit the Galapagos (Epler, 2007).
Population and tourism growth does not come without challenges. Population growth has strained local municipalities who struggle to provide adequate services and infrastructure , increased pressure to exploit resources, accelerated the rate of introduction of invasive species, and lead to pollution of drinking water. Issues on waste management and sewage problems are other concernsThese issues often lead to moments of civil unrest and crime, such as when 80 tortoises were slaughtered in 1944 and the Darwin Station was seized in 1955 by sea cucumber fisherman. Negative impacts from tourism not only include more development, but erosion, damage to geologic features, and the possibility of trash and plastic from tour ships entering the water and harming sea life (Sitnik, n.d.).
The Galapagos National Park Service and Charles Darwin Research Station implemented various systems to regulate tourism and finance conservation and development which includes visitor entrance fees, boat licenses (cupos), designating zones based on use and their carrying capacity, and regulating vessel itineraries. The tourism industry in the Galapagos is dependent on the reputation as one of the world's most pristine and best-managed protected areas. Better planning that includes environmental protection as well as socioeconomic development is needed to ensure that the beauty and integrity of the Galapagos remain intact (Euler, 2007).
Wildlife, Conservation, and Issues
The Galapagos contains a strange mix of animals that most people do not associate with each other. From giant tortoises, to sea lions, to penguins, to tropical fish and hammerhead sharks, the different animals of the islands all have found their niche. The animals here are also fearless of humans, reacting completely different to our presence than animals in urban areas. Sea life around the islands include sharks, sea lions, sea turtles, marine iguanas, corals, and tropical fish. There are many sea birds including the Galapagos penguin, waved albatross, and flightless cormorant. There are also many land birds such as the 13 species of finches, Mocking bird, Frigate bird, and Yellow Warbler, and Galapagos Hawk. These animals all arrived to the islands through various means such as vegetation rafts, ocean currents, and wind currents (Galapagos Documentary, 2013).
Many steps have been made toward the conservation and management of the Galapagos. The Galapagos became a National Park in 1959, was labeled a World Heritage Site in 1979, and is considered a Biosphere reserve and Whale Sanctuary. The Special Law of the Galapagos was created in 1988, and the the Galapagos Marine Reserve in 1998 to protect 133,00 square kilometers of sea and coastal areas. Despite these conservation efforts, the biodiversity is stressed by invasive species pollution, tourism, and a growing population.
The continentalization (becoming more like the mainland) of the islands is shown by the Galapagos Geographic Index, which measures the pervasive ecological and social transformations caused in the Galapagos Islands due to the influx of human beings, materials, and fuel and energy inputs. An increase in ships around the islands leads to an increase in biological pollution, acoustic pollution, and the risk of oil spills. For example, in January of 2001, the Jessica Oil spill occurred which affected the survival rate of marine iguanas as well as other animals. Another issue is the amount of trash that can be found in the water, harming and even killing sea life (Vancouver Aquarium, 2016).
An interesting study was done by Juan Jose Alava, a researcher for Vancouver Aquarium Marine Science Centre's Ocean Pollution Research Program. He went on an expedition in 2008 to capture and collect biopsies from sea lions. His research shows that Galapagos sea lions are exposed to the persistent organic pollutant, DDT. In 1940, the US Navy had a base where they used DDT to kill the introduced rats. DDT, a persistent pollutant, still remains in the ecosystem today. It can travel up the food web until it reaches and accumulates in top predators, such as sea lions (Vancouver Aquarium, 2016).
The Galapagos contains a strange mix of animals that most people do not associate with each other. From giant tortoises, to sea lions, to penguins, to tropical fish and hammerhead sharks, the different animals of the islands all have found their niche. The animals here are also fearless of humans, reacting completely different to our presence than animals in urban areas. Sea life around the islands include sharks, sea lions, sea turtles, marine iguanas, corals, and tropical fish. There are many sea birds including the Galapagos penguin, waved albatross, and flightless cormorant. There are also many land birds such as the 13 species of finches, Mocking bird, Frigate bird, and Yellow Warbler, and Galapagos Hawk. These animals all arrived to the islands through various means such as vegetation rafts, ocean currents, and wind currents (Galapagos Documentary, 2013).
Many steps have been made toward the conservation and management of the Galapagos. The Galapagos became a National Park in 1959, was labeled a World Heritage Site in 1979, and is considered a Biosphere reserve and Whale Sanctuary. The Special Law of the Galapagos was created in 1988, and the the Galapagos Marine Reserve in 1998 to protect 133,00 square kilometers of sea and coastal areas. Despite these conservation efforts, the biodiversity is stressed by invasive species pollution, tourism, and a growing population.
The continentalization (becoming more like the mainland) of the islands is shown by the Galapagos Geographic Index, which measures the pervasive ecological and social transformations caused in the Galapagos Islands due to the influx of human beings, materials, and fuel and energy inputs. An increase in ships around the islands leads to an increase in biological pollution, acoustic pollution, and the risk of oil spills. For example, in January of 2001, the Jessica Oil spill occurred which affected the survival rate of marine iguanas as well as other animals. Another issue is the amount of trash that can be found in the water, harming and even killing sea life (Vancouver Aquarium, 2016).
An interesting study was done by Juan Jose Alava, a researcher for Vancouver Aquarium Marine Science Centre's Ocean Pollution Research Program. He went on an expedition in 2008 to capture and collect biopsies from sea lions. His research shows that Galapagos sea lions are exposed to the persistent organic pollutant, DDT. In 1940, the US Navy had a base where they used DDT to kill the introduced rats. DDT, a persistent pollutant, still remains in the ecosystem today. It can travel up the food web until it reaches and accumulates in top predators, such as sea lions (Vancouver Aquarium, 2016).
Volcanic Morphology
The volcanic islands of the Galapagos erupted over the last 10 million years on the Nazca Plate. The islands of the Galapagos Archipelago formed over the last 10 million years on the Nazca Plate. The youngest islands are located to the west, due to the eastern movement of the Nazca Plate relative to the Galapagos hotspot. A study done focuses on the submarine geology of the three westernmost islands (Fernandina, Isabela, and Santiago) using EM300 bathymetry with MR1 side-scan sonar imagery. In 2006, five geomorphic provinces in the western Galapagos were identified: submarine rift zones, large deep-water lava fields, shallow steep sloped submarine flanks, mass-wasting and erosional deposits, and submarine terraces. The EM300 bathymetry and MR1 side-scan sonar data also revealed small-scale volcanic cones of various morphologies. Other key volcanic geomorphologic constructs in the western Galapagos include rift zones and deep-water lava flows. The research shows that volcanism in the western Galapagos occurs along active rift zones and along volcanic flanks not associated with volcanic rifts. Fresh lava sampled from the NW submarine rift of Fernandina Island suggests that recent rift zone volcanism has occurred ( Glass, Fornari, Hall, Cougan, and Berkenbosch, 2007).
The volcanic islands of the Galapagos erupted over the last 10 million years on the Nazca Plate. The islands of the Galapagos Archipelago formed over the last 10 million years on the Nazca Plate. The youngest islands are located to the west, due to the eastern movement of the Nazca Plate relative to the Galapagos hotspot. A study done focuses on the submarine geology of the three westernmost islands (Fernandina, Isabela, and Santiago) using EM300 bathymetry with MR1 side-scan sonar imagery. In 2006, five geomorphic provinces in the western Galapagos were identified: submarine rift zones, large deep-water lava fields, shallow steep sloped submarine flanks, mass-wasting and erosional deposits, and submarine terraces. The EM300 bathymetry and MR1 side-scan sonar data also revealed small-scale volcanic cones of various morphologies. Other key volcanic geomorphologic constructs in the western Galapagos include rift zones and deep-water lava flows. The research shows that volcanism in the western Galapagos occurs along active rift zones and along volcanic flanks not associated with volcanic rifts. Fresh lava sampled from the NW submarine rift of Fernandina Island suggests that recent rift zone volcanism has occurred ( Glass, Fornari, Hall, Cougan, and Berkenbosch, 2007).
Darwin
Charles Darwin was born in 1809 in Shrewsbury, England and made his five-year voyage on the HMS Beagle from 1831-1836 where he took notes and collected specimens. Today, he is considered one of the most important people of science. After his voyage, Darwin stated in his autobiography, “From September 1854 I devoted my whole time to arranging my huge pile of notes, to observing, and to experimenting in relation to the transmutation of species” Darwin covered a large number of subjects in The Origin of Species, and changed the scientific thinking regarding the origin of life. He was able to develop his theory of evolution because he could claim to be an expert in several scientific disciplines, including zoology, botany, geology, and embryology. Darwin used research from fellow scientist and quoted work even if they did to support a theory of evolution. He was able to take a wide and seemingly unrelated group of ideas and combine them to create his theory.Darwin’s explanation of the origins of life is a naturalistic one, one where he relied on forces and laws that humans could identify. His work was controversial, even though it was widely accepted, because it made people question the way they also approached religion and philosophy (Francis, 2007).
Charles Darwin was born in 1809 in Shrewsbury, England and made his five-year voyage on the HMS Beagle from 1831-1836 where he took notes and collected specimens. Today, he is considered one of the most important people of science. After his voyage, Darwin stated in his autobiography, “From September 1854 I devoted my whole time to arranging my huge pile of notes, to observing, and to experimenting in relation to the transmutation of species” Darwin covered a large number of subjects in The Origin of Species, and changed the scientific thinking regarding the origin of life. He was able to develop his theory of evolution because he could claim to be an expert in several scientific disciplines, including zoology, botany, geology, and embryology. Darwin used research from fellow scientist and quoted work even if they did to support a theory of evolution. He was able to take a wide and seemingly unrelated group of ideas and combine them to create his theory.Darwin’s explanation of the origins of life is a naturalistic one, one where he relied on forces and laws that humans could identify. His work was controversial, even though it was widely accepted, because it made people question the way they also approached religion and philosophy (Francis, 2007).
References
BioInteractive, H. ( 2014, August 26). Galapagos Finch Evolution- HHMI BioInteractive Video. Retrieved from Youtube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mcM23M-CCog&feature=youtu.be
BioInteractive, H. (2015, February 13). The Origin of Birds — HHMI BioInteractive Video. Retrieved from YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z4nuWLd2ivc&feature=youtu.be
Epler, B. ( 2007, September). Tourism, the Economy, Population Growth, and Conservation in Galapagos. Charles Darwin Foundation.
Evolution in the Galapagos. (2011, November 11). Retrieved from YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n3265bno2X0&feature=youtu.be
Francis, Keith A. “Charles Darwin and The Origin of Species.” Greenwood Guides to Historic Events, 1500–1900, 2007.
Galapagos Documentary. ( 2013, October 18). Retrieved from YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cKzwsQTa8-0&list=PLyOVSbari5z8dF-o3H7aY8PJpPwLesLOT&index=2
Glass, J.B., Fornari, D.J., Hall, H.F., Cougan, A.A., and Berkenbosch, H.A. (2007). Submarine Volcanic Morphology of the Western Galapagos Based on EM300 Bathymetry and MRI Side-Scan Sonar. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 8(3), 1-16. doi: 10.1029/2006GC001464
Sitnik, M. (n.d.). Sustainable Ecotourism: The Galapagos Balance. Yale F&ES Bulletin, 89-99.
WWF. (2015, December 11). THE GALÁPAGOS. Retrieved from World Wildlife Foundation: http://www.worldwildlife.org/places/the-galapagos
Vancouver Aquarium. ( 2016, September 15). Conserving the Last Eden: Research Experiences in the Galapagos Islands. Retrieved from YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Q_UHud8OCU